Language Evolution and Computation Bibliography

Did Neanderthals have language? This issue has been debated back and forth for decades, without resolution. But in recent years new evidence has become available. New fossils and archeological finds cast light on relevant Neanderthal anatomy and behavior. New DNA evidence, both fossil and modern, provides clues both to the relationship between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens, and to the genetics of language. In this paper, I review and evaluate the available evidence. My conclusion is that the preponderance of the evidence supports the presence of some form of language in Neanderthals.

In holistic theories of protolanguage, a vital step is the fractionation process where holistic utter- ances are broken down into segments, and segments associated with semantic components. One problem for this process may be the occurrence of counterexamples to any segment-meaning connection. The actual abundance of such counterexamples is a contentious issue (Smith, 2006; Tallerman, 2007). Here I present calculations of the prevalence of counterexamples in model languages. It is found that counterexamples are indeed abundant, much more numerous than positive examples for any plausible holistic language.

The possibilities for a stepwise evolution of grammar are evaluated through an analysis of which components of modern human grammar are removable, and in what order, while still leaving a functional communication system. It is found that recursivity is a prime candidate for being a late evolutionary addition, with flexibility and hierarchical rules coming next. Furthermore, it is argued that recursivity need not be the unitary infinite-loop concept of formal grammars, but can evolve in several smaller steps.

The precise timing of the emergence of language in human prehistory cannot be resolved. But the available evidence is sufficient to constrain it to some degree. This is a review and synthesis of the available evidence, leading to the conclusion that the time when speech became important for our ancestors can be constrained to be not less than 500,000 years ago, thus excluding several popular theories involving a late transition to speech.

Sverker Johansson has written an unusual book on language origins, with its emphasis on empirical evidence rather than theory-building. This is a book for the student or researcher who prefers solid data and well-supported conclusions, over speculative scenarios. Much that has been written on the origins of language is characterized by hypothesizing largely unconstrained by evidence. But empirical data do exist, and the purpose of this book is to integrate and review the available evidence from all relevant disciplines, not only linguistics but also, e.g., neurology, primatology, paleoanthropology, and evolutionary biology. The evidence is then used to constrain the multitude of scenarios for language origins, demonstrating that many popular hypotheses are untenable. Among the issues covered: (1) Human evolutionary history, (2) Anatomical prerequisites for language, (3) Animal communication and ape 'language', (4) Mind and language, (5) The role of gesture, (6) Innateness, (7) Selective advantage of language, (8) Proto-language.

Table of Contents
1. Introduction 1
2. What is language? 5
3. The theory of evolution 13
4. Human origins and evolution 41
5. Anatomical and neurological prerequisites 77
6. Animal communication in the wild 119
7. Can nonhumans be taught language? 129
8. Language, mind, and self 143
9. Hypotheses of language origins 157
10. Why did language evolve? 193
11. Protolanguage 219
12. Conclusions 243